The plates make up Earth's outer shell, called the lithosphere. (This includes the crust and uppermost part of the mantle.) Churning currents in the molten rocks below propel them along like a ...

More information: D. Sarah Stamps et al, Open Access GNSS Data for Studies of the Lithosphere, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (2024). DOI: 10.1029/2024GC011567 Provided by Virginia Tech ...

Earthquakes occur when the rock on one side of a fault slips relative to the other. The fault surface can be vertical, ...

and lithosphere) on Earth. Along with energy flows, biogeochemical cycles establish the relations among ecosystem compartments at local, regional and global scales. In these systems of inputs ...

including the study of the solid earth (lithosphere), the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (including the oceans), and the biosphere. This major blends these academic fields into a coherent ...